@article {303,
	title = {Studies of human body lice Pediculus humanus corporis. II. Quantitative comparisons of the susceptibility of human body lice and cotton rats to experimental infection with epidemic typhus rickettsiae},
	journal = {American Journal of Hygiene},
	volume = {58},
	year = {1953},
	note = {JID: 7910859; OID: CLML: 5425:981:346:408; OTO: NLM; ppublish},
	month = {1953},
	pages = {188 - 206},
	keywords = {epidemic, humanus, Pediculus, rickettsia, typhus},
	isbn = {0096-5294},
	author = {Fuller,H. S.}
}
@article {221,
	title = {Antibody and antibiotic action on Rickettsia prowazeki in body lice across the host-vector interface, with observations on strain virulence and retrieval mechanisms},
	journal = {American Journal of Epidemiology},
	volume = {98},
	year = {1973},
	note = {1209},
	month = {1973},
	pages = {262 - 282},
	abstract = {Using a membrane feeding technique to administer known quantities of rickettsiae,antibodies and antibiotics, the influence of a series of variables in the host-vector-agent interaction on the replication of Rickettsia prowcizeki
in the human body louse was examined. Rickettsial replication
and louse death patterns were indistinguishable whether the lice were
infected with the virulent Breini or the attenuated E strain. Ingestion
of blood containing clinically attainable levels of doxycycline or ritampin
inhibited rickettsial growth in lice and delayed their death from infection.
However, 4 days of "treatment" with either antibiotic failed to
eradicate the rickettsiae from the lice and, after a delay, peak rickettsial
populations equalled those of untreated controls. Antibodies in
serum from a person solidly immune to typhus had no influence at any
stage on the rickettsial infection in the louse. The rickettsiae excreted
by such lice had detectable amounts of immunoglobulins on their surface.
Regardless of strain virulence for man, or the presence or absence
of antirickettsial antibodies or of prior exposure to antibiotics, the rickettsiae
attained a peak population of 1-2 X 108 organisms per louse.
Some of the conclusions drawn from these studies and bearing on the
epidemiology and control of typhus are as follows: 1) Body lice do not
appear to discriminate between rickettsial strains of high and low
virulence for {\textquoteright}man and, in nature, might be capable of transmitting
strains of low virulence it available in the blood. 2) Effective antibiotic
therapy does not eradicate the rickettsiae from infected lice feeding
upon treated patients. The prolonged survival of "treated" infected lice increases the opportunity for typhus transmission and enhances the possibility for the selection of antibiotic resistant rickettsiae. The importance, therefore, of effective louse control measures concurrent with antibiotic therapy is emphasized. 3) If rickettsiae are present in sufficient numbers in the blood of immune or partially immune individuals,
lice should be able to (a) retrieve them, (b) provide a favorable environment
for their massive replication and (c) reintroduce them into the transmission sequence.},
	keywords = {antibiotics, antibody, body lice, doxycyline, immunity, Pediculus humanus humanus, Rickettsia prowazeki, rifampin, typhus},
	url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/Publications/40298.pdf},
	author = {Boese,J. L. and Wisseman,Charles L., Jr. and Walsch,W. T. and Fiset,P.}
}
@article {156,
	title = {An attempt to infect human body lice, Pediculus humanus var corporis on a mild case of murine typhus},
	journal = {China Medical Journal},
	volume = {97},
	year = {1984},
	note = {LR: 20041117; JID: 7513795; ppublish},
	month = {1984},
	pages = {158 - 164},
	address = {CHINA},
	keywords = {animals, guinea pigs, humans, Insect vectors, Lice/microbiology, Middle Aged, Rabbit, Rickettsia/growth \& development/isolation \& purification, typhus},
	isbn = {0366-6999},
	author = {Li,J. X. and Fu,R. S. and Liu,W. T.}
}
@article {99,
	title = {The body louse as a vector of reemerging human diseases},
	journal = {Clinical Infectious Diseases},
	volume = {29},
	year = {1999},
	month = {1999},
	pages = {888 - 911},
	abstract = {The body louse, Pediculus humanus humanus, is a strict human parasite, living and multiplying in clothing. Louse infestation is associated with cold weather and a lack of hygiene. Three pathogenic bacteria are transmitted by the body louse. Borrelia recurrentis is a spirochete, the agent of relapsing fever, recently cultured on axenic medium. Historically, massive outbreaks have occurred in Eurasia and Africa, but currently the disease is found only in Ethiopia and neighboring countries. Bartonella quintana is now recognized as an agent of bacillary angiomatosis bacteremia, trench fever, endocarditis, and chronic lymphadenopathy among the homeless. Rickettsia prowazekii is the agent of epidemic typhus. The most recent outbreak (and the largest since World War II) was observed in Burundi. A small outbreak was also reported in Russia in 1997. Louse infestation appears to become more prevalent worldwide, associated with a decline in social and hygienic conditions provoked by civil unrest and economic instability.},
	keywords = {animals, classification, humans, Insect vectors, insecticide, lice, microbiology, phylogeny, physiology, Relapsing Fever, trench fever, typhus},
	url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/Publications/45048.pdf},
	author = {Raoult,Didier and Roux,Veronique}
}
@article {100,
	title = {Epidemic typhus in Africa},
	journal = {Medecine Tropicale},
	volume = {59},
	year = {1999},
	note = {LR: 20041117; JID: 8710146; RF: 91; ppublish},
	month = {1999},
	pages = {181 - 192},
	address = {FRANCE},
	abstract = {Epidemic typhus is caused by a small strictly intracellular virus named Rickettsia prowazekii, a member of the Rickettsial family. It is transmitted to man by the body louse, Pediculus humanus. Although now rare in Western countries, exanthematic typhus remains common in the Southern hemisphere due to poverty, inadequate clothing hygiene, and poor socioeconomic conditions. In Africa, outbreaks have historically occurred in Burundi, Rwanda, southwest Ouganda, and Ethiopia. The largest outbreak of epidemic typhus since the World War II was reported in Burundi where ongoing civil war since October 1993 has forced 10 p. 100 of the population of Burundi to live in cold, promiscuity, and malnutrition of makeshift refugee camps. The purpose of this report based on our two-year experience working with this unfortunate population is to describe the characteristics of this disease in Africa where the epidemic form had become rare until recently. Indeed political unrest as well as numerous civil wars are now epidmiological factors favorizing outbreaks of epidemic typhus at any time. This overview also provides an opportunity to recall epidemiological, bacteriological, and clinical aspects of typhus as well as diagnosis and treatment of the disease in the context of Africa.},
	keywords = {Africa, animals, Burundi, Diagnosis, Differential, Disease Outbreaks/statistics \& numerical data, English Abstract, humans, Insect vectors, Lice/microbiology, populations, risk factors, typhus, war},
	isbn = {0025-682X},
	author = {Ndihokubwayo,J. B. and Raoult,Didier}
}
@article {69,
	title = {An experimental model of human body louse infection with Rickettsia typhi},
	journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
	volume = {990},
	year = {2003},
	note = {LR: 20041117; JID: 7506858; ppublish},
	month = {2003},
	pages = {617 - 627},
	address = {United States},
	abstract = {Murine (endemic) typhus caused by Rickettsia typhi, one of the most widely distributed arthropod-borne diseases, is transmitted to humans mainly by the oriental rat flea. The human body louse, Pediculus humanus corporis, has been suspected to have a role in the transmission of R. typhi to humans. To evaluate the potential role of Pediculus humanus corporis as a vector of murine typhus, we used R. typhi in an experimental model of human body louse infection previously used with R. prowazekii. A rabbit was made bacteremic by inoculating it with 2 x 10(6) plaque-forming units of R. typhi; it remained bacteremic for at least 59 hours. Two hundred body lice infected by feeding on the bacteremic rabbit were compared to 200 uninfected control lice. Each louse population was fed once a day on the abdomen of a seronegative rabbit. On day 8 post-infection, as a result of disruption of the gut cells and leakage of the blood meal into the hemolymph, four infected lice became bright red and died within four hours. The life span of infected lice was 20 days less than that of the controls. Infected lice did not transmit R. typhi to their progeny (eggs and larvae) as demonstrated by PCR amplification and cell culture. With an immunofluorescence assay, R. typhi was detected in feces from day 7 post-infection, and the organism remained viable in feces for up to 80 days as demonstrated by cell culture. From the 21st day post-infection, the rabbit used to feed the R. typhi-infected lice developed an immunoglobulin response with a titer of 1:50 increasing to 1:200 at the 42nd day post-infection. It showed no clinical signs of infection. The rabbit that was used to feed uninfected lice remained seronegative. Although body lice are not clearly identified vectors of R. typhi, it seems that under certain circumstances they could transmit R. typhi.},
	keywords = {animals, Disease Models, Animal, Feces/microbiology, humans, Lice/microbiology/pathogenicity/physiology, Rabbit, reproduction, Rickettsia typhi/pathogenicity, typhus},
	isbn = {0077-8923},
	author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Fournier,P. E. and Fang,R. and Raoult,Didier}
}
@article {77,
	title = {Potential role of head lice, Pediculus humanus capitis, as vectors of Rickettsia prowazekii},
	journal = {Parasitology research},
	volume = {90},
	year = {2003},
	month = {2003},
	pages = {209 - 211},
	abstract = {Since the pioneering work of Charles Nicolle in 1909 [see Gross (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:10539-10540] most medical officers and scientists have assumed that body lice are the sole vectors of Rickettsia prowazekii, the aetiological agent of louse-borne epidemic typhus (LBET). Here we review the evidence for the axiom that head lice are not involved in epidemics of LBET. Laboratory experiments demonstrate the ability of head lice to transmit R. prowazekii, but evidence for this in the field has not been reported. However, the assumption that head lice do not transmit R. prowazekii has meant that head lice have not been examined for R. prowazekii during epidemics of LBET. The strong association between obvious (high) infestations of body lice and LBET has contributed to this perception, but this association does not preclude head lice as vectors of R. prowazekii. Indeed, where the prevalence and intensity of body louse infections may be high (e.g. during epidemics of LBET), the prevalence and intensity of head louse infestations is generally high as well. This review of the epidemiology of head louse and body louse infestations, and of LBET, indicates that head lice are potential vectors of R. prowazekii in the field. Simple observations in the field would reveal whether or not head lice are natural vectors of this major human pathogen.},
	keywords = {animals, humans, Insect vectors, Lice Infestations/epidemiology, Pediculus, Rickettsia prowazekii/physiology, typhus},
	isbn = {0932-0113},
	author = {Robinson,D. and Leo,Natalie P. and Prociv,P. and Barker,Stephen C.}
}
